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Introduction

Types of Steroids

Effects and Side Effects

History and Usage

# Contents

## Steroid
Steroids are a class of organic compounds characterized by a specific type of chemical structure.
They are primarily found in animals, plants, fungi, and some bacteria, where they play diverse roles in biological processes.
Steroids have three interconnected rings, with functional groups such as hydroxyl or ketone groups attached to the molecule.
Their structure is crucial for their activity, enabling them to act as
hormones, vitamins, or other bioactive compounds.

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## Nomenclature
The nomenclature of steroids refers to the systematic naming of these compounds.
Steroids are named based on their structural features or biological functions.

For example, “cholesterol” refers to a specific steroid
molecule produced in the liver and used in animal
cell membranes. Other examples include “sex hormones,”
such as estrogen and testosterone, which are steroidal molecules involved in reproduction and endocrine regulation.

## Rings and functional groups
Steroids have a unique structure with three interconnected rings.
The core of the steroid framework consists of two cyclohexane rings fused together, forming a bicyclic system.
Functional groups, such as hydroxyl (-OH) or ketone (C=O) groups, are attached to this framework and play a critical role in determining the biological activity of the molecule.
These functional groups can influence steroid behavior, such as their affinity for specific receptors
or their solubility in different environments.

## Naming convention
The naming convention for steroids follows specific
rules that help differentiate between the various
types of steroidal molecules. The name often includes a prefix derived from the class
of compounds (e.g., “sterol” for cholesterol, “keto” for ketone-containing sterols).
Additional suffixes may indicate modifications or functional groups present on the molecule.
This system ensures clarity and precision in communication within scientific communities.

## Species distribution
Steroids are distributed across a wide range of species.
Their presence is not limited to one type of organism, as they can be
found in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. For example:
– **Eukaryotic organisms**: Steroids are abundant in animals, plants,
fungi, and single-celled eukaryotes like protozoa.

– **Prokaryotic organisms**: Sterols, a type
of steroid, are found in bacterial cell membranes and play a role in maintaining membrane integrity.

## Eukaryotic
In eukaryotic organisms, steroids serve various biological functions.
For instance:
– Animals produce a wide variety of steroids, including sex hormones (e.g., estrogen, testosterone) that
regulate reproduction and metabolism.
– Plants synthesize sterols as part of their cell
membranes, contributing to the strength and structure of these cellular structures.

– Fungi also produce sterols, such as ergosterol, which is essential for the integrity of fungal cell membranes.

## Prokaryotic
In prokaryotic organisms, sterols are a key component of bacterial cell membranes.
These sterols help maintain membrane fluidity and flexibility, ensuring that the
cell can function under various environmental conditions.
While sterols are common in bacteria and archaea, they are not
typically found in other types of prokaryotes, such as viruses.

## Fungal
Fungi produce a variety of sterols, including ergosterol, which
is a fundamental component of fungal cell membranes.
Ergosterol’s structure differs slightly from
cholesterol, the primary sterol in animals, but
it serves similar functions in maintaining membrane integrity and facilitating the transport of ions and nutrients across the
membrane.

## Plant
In plants, sterols are essential for the structural integrity of cellular membranes.
Unlike animals, plants do not synthesize cholesterol but
instead produce a related molecule called phytosterol.
Phytosterols share some structural similarities with animal sterols but have unique
features that make them suited to plant biology. These compounds contribute to membrane stability and help regulate growth and
development in plants.

## Animal
Animals are perhaps the most complex users of steroids,
producing a vast array of these molecules for various purposes.
For example:
– **Sex hormones**: Steroids such as testosterone (male) and estrogen (female) play critical roles in reproduction and sexual differentiation.
– **Adrenal steroids**: The adrenal glands produce corticosteroids,
which are involved in stress response and immune function.
– **Vitamin D**: A steroid molecule derived from cholesterol that is essential for bone health and
calcium absorption.
– **Other sterols**: Cholesterol itself is a vital component of animal
cell membranes and precursor to various hormones and other bioactive
compounds.

## Types
Steroids can be categorized based on their function or
structure:
– **By function**: Sex steroids (e.g., estrogen, testosterone), adrenal steroids (e.g.,
cortisol), vitamin D derivatives, and sterols like cholesterol.

– **By structure**: Intact ring systems, cleaved rings, contracted rings,
or expanded rings.

## Rings and functional groups
The number and arrangement of rings in the steroid framework influence its biological activity.
For example:
– **Intact ring system**: Steroids with all three rings intact often retain their basic structural features, allowing
them to interact with specific receptors and perform normal cellular functions.

– **Cleaved rings**: Modified steroids where one or more rings have been broken or altered can result in compounds with different properties.
These derivatives may be more effective at targeting specific cellular pathways or receptors.

– **Contracted rings**: Steroids with one ring
contracted into a smaller, often five-membered structure are common in certain hormones and signaling molecules.

– **Expanded rings**: Some steroid derivatives have additional carbons added to the ring system,
altering their shape and function.

## Biological significance
Steroids are biologically significant compounds with
diverse roles in organisms. They serve as signaling molecules, hormone
precursors, and structural components of cell membranes.
For example:
– **Signaling**: Steroids can act as hormones, transmitting
signals within and between cells to regulate gene expression and cellular activity.

– **Vitamin D**: A steroid derivative that is essential for bone health and calcium absorption.
– **Cholesterol**: A major component of animal cell membranes, which also serves as a precursor
for sex hormones and other steroidal molecules.

## Biosynthesis and metabolism
The biosynthesis of steroids involves complex biochemical pathways that convert simple precursors into highly
structured molecules. The two primary pathways for steroid synthesis are the Mevalonate pathway (also known as the
cholesterol biosynthesis pathway) and the alternative pathways, such
as the reverse transport of sterols in cells.

### Mevalonate pathway
The Mevalonate pathway is a series of enzymatic reactions that convert
acetyl-CoA into mevalonic acid, which serves as a precursor for the synthesis of cholesterol and other steroids.

This pathway is active in most animals and plays a critical role in maintaining
cellular health and homeostasis.

### Steroidogenesis
Steroidogenesis refers to the process by which sterols are synthesized and modified into biologically active molecules.
For example, cholesterol can be converted into vitamin D in sunlight, or transformed into sex hormones like estrogen and testosterone.
This process is tightly regulated by the body to ensure that steroid
levels remain within a healthy range.

### Alternative pathways
In addition to the Mevalonate pathway, alternative pathways for steroid biosynthesis exist, particularly in certain tissues and organisms.
These pathways may involve different precursors or unique enzymatic modifications, allowing for the production of
specialized sterols tailored to specific biological needs.

### Catabolism and excretion
Once steroids have fulfilled their biological function, they are
broken down by enzymes known as steroid sulfatases
and sulfotransferases. This process, known as catabolism, converts the steroids into inactive metabolites that can be safely excreted from the body.
The excretion of sterols is a critical step in maintaining homeostasis and preventing the buildup
of potentially harmful levels of these molecules.

## Isolation, structure determination, and methods of analysis
The isolation and structural determination of steroids are essential
for understanding their biological roles and developing new therapies.
Techniques such as chromatography, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy
are commonly used to isolate and analyze steroidal
compounds. These methods allow researchers to identify unknown steroids or study the structure of known molecules in detail.

## Chemical synthesis
The chemical synthesis of steroids involves the use of organic chemistry techniques to construct these molecules from simpler precursors.

While natural methods dominate in biological contexts, synthetic approaches have
been developed for the purposes of research and drug development.
Synthesis can be challenging due to the complexity of the steroid framework, but advanced methodologies have made it possible to create sterols with specific
structural modifications.

### Precursors
The synthesis of steroids begins with precursors such
as mevalonic acid or isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), which are derived from
acetyl-CoA. These compounds undergo a series of
enzymatic reactions to produce the steroid nucleus,
the core structure of all sterols.

### Semisynthesis
Semisynthesis involves the chemical manipulation of
naturally occurring steroids or their derivatives to create new molecules with desired properties.
This approach is particularly useful for modifying
existing sterols to enhance their biological activity or improve their pharmacokinetics.

### Total synthesis
Total synthesis refers to the de novo construction of steroids
from non-steroidal precursors, without relying on natural
sources. This method is often used in drug discovery to create molecules
with therapeutic potential. The challenge lies in replicating
the complex structure and biological activity of naturally occurring sterols.

## Research awards
Over the years, significant research has been conducted into the chemistry,
biology, and applications of steroids. Notable scientists in this field have received
awards for their contributions to understanding steroid metabolism, biosynthesis, and function. These achievements have led to advancements in fields such
as medicine, nutrition, and pharmacology.

## See also
– **Lipid metabolism**
– **Endocrinology**
– **Biochemistry**

## References
This article is based on publicly available information and does not constitute medical advice.

Always consult a healthcare professional for medical concerns or before
starting any new treatment regimen.

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